[VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Printable Version +- HP Forums (https://www.hpmuseum.org/forum) +-- Forum: HP Calculators (and very old HP Computers) (/forum-3.html) +--- Forum: General Forum (/forum-4.html) +--- Thread: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral (/thread-11033.html) Pages: 1 2 3 [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Valentin Albillo - 07-10-2018 10:10 PM . Hi all, welcome to my SRC#001 - Spiky Integral: Here I'll deal with a real-world math problem not of my own making but which did appear at a certain math competition. The problem introduces this "spiky" integral:             I(N) = $$\int_{0}^{2\pi} cos(x)\, cos(2x)\, cos(3x)\, ...\, cos(Nx)\, dx$$ and asks  for which values of  N  in the interval  [1,10]  does  I(N)  have a non-zero value. It then specifies that the result must include proof of correctness but in my extensive experience with problems of this sort I've found that it's best to first obtain the correct result using whatever means (praying included, bribing not excluded), as this will usually provide a most helpful "hint" to afterwards try and get proof of its validity. With this strategy in mind (and if praying and bribing have already proved ineffective), we can use our beloved HP calcs (yes, HP calcs, not Excel, not Mathematica, not Wolfram Alpha, not Maple, not Matlab, not laptops, you get the drift) to get some numerical evidence first, then use it to make an educated conjecture on what the correct result might probably be. As for numerical evidence, this is how I'd obtain it using an HP-15C and a very simple, straightforward little program I wrote which goes as follows: The program segment which computes   Cos(x)*Cos(2x)*Cos(3x)*...*Cos(Nx),   where N is assumed to be in R0 and x in stack register X (the display), is placed under LBL B and the main program which computes the integral I(N) for N from 1 to 10 is placed after it under LBL A:       001  LBL B      015  LBL A       002  STO 1      016  1.01       003  RCL 0      020  STO 0       004  INT        021  LBL 0       005  STO I      022  0       006  1          023  PI       007  LBL 1      024  2       008  RCL I      025  x       009  RCLx 1     026  INTEG B       010  COS        027  RCL 0       011  x          028  R/S       012  DSE I      029  X<>Y       013  GTO 1      030  R/S       014  RTN        031  ISG 0                       032  GTO 0 To run it, simply press:       [USER] [RAD] [FIX 3]       [A]   ->  1.010    [R/S] -1.083 -04       [R/S] ->  2.010    [R/S] -5.974 -05       [R/S] ->  3.010    [R/S]  1.571       [R/S] ->  4.010    [R/S]  0.785       [R/S] ->  5.010    [R/S]  3.778 -08       [R/S] ->  6.010    [R/S]  2.733 -09       [R/S] ->  7.010    [R/S]  0.393       [R/S] ->  8.010    [R/S]  0.344       [R/S] ->  9.010    [R/S] -3.600 -04       [R/S] -> 10.010    [R/S]  1.664 -09 Notes: - It's best to run this on much faster, modern HP-15C-based hardware or a fast software emulator as otherwise it will take several hours for a physical vintage HP-15C to get the results above, mostly because the function being integrated gets more an more "spiky" as N grows and so it takes more and more time to integrate it accurately. - FIX 3 is recommended for speed as FIX 4 or higher takes significantly longer and the extra accuracy isn't needed here. On the other hand, FIX 2 can't be used in the HP-15C or the HP-41C/Advantage versions because for N=4 we get:         I(4) = 0.86 +- 0.03 which is wrong, the uncertainty is lying. This is similar to what Mr. Kahan said about one of his sample integrals in some issue of the HP Journal: the error is too small to notice but too big to ignore. The solution is of course to use FIX 3 as above or SCI 2, which also gives the correct result, namely:         I(4) = 7.85E-01 +- 1.48E-03 With this evidence in mind and regarding anything smaller than 1E-3 as 0 (as we are computing the integrals in FIX 3) we can see that I(N) is non-zero for N=3, 4, 7 and 8. Using this numerical evidence I have my own conjecture on what the result will be for general N, which I'll post in a few days together with my verbatim conversion of this HP-15C program for the HP-41C/Advantage ROM (which runs very fast in modern hardware/emulators) as well as a completely different 6-line enhanced version for the HP-71B/Math ROM which profitably uses a technique discussed in my latest S&SMC#23 and further includes a couple of very nice extras not present in the other versions. First though, I'd like to see what your own conjectures are (computing for N>10 might help to check them out) and of course your very own programs for your preferred hardware (RPL comes to mind, Prime's PPL, even SHARP or Casio models ...) or, if you're not up to the task (you know who you are), at least your very own personal comments or ideas ! (Googling for the solution is totally laaaaaame, boo !). Regards. V. . RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - pier4r - 07-11-2018 11:10 AM Thanks for the post. What does SRC means in this case? Source problem? RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Gerson W. Barbosa - 07-12-2018 04:23 AM (07-10-2018 10:10 PM)Valentin Albillo Wrote:  Using this numerical evidence I have my own conjecture on what the result will be for general N, which I'll post in a few days... Hello, Valentin, Here is my conjecture for the exact result when N = 39: $$\frac{756388295}{68719476736}\pi$$ No programs. I’ve evaluated the integrals for N up to 12 on my CASIO fx-991 LA X, which does it fast enough and gives exact results for N = 1, 2, 3, 4, 7 and 8. No googling, except for a OEIS sequence. Best regards, Gerson. RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Massimo Gnerucci - 07-12-2018 06:10 AM (07-12-2018 04:23 AM)Gerson W. Barbosa Wrote:  No googling, except for a OEIS sequence. I bet is one of these! RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Pjwum - 07-12-2018 10:32 AM With HP Prime Code:  EXPORT SPIKES() BEGIN LOCAL N; FOR N FROM 1 TO 20 DO PRINT(int(product(COS(M*X),M,1,N,1),X,0,2*π)); END; END; we can go beyond 10 0 0 1/2 pi 1/4 pi 0 0 1/8 pi 7/64 pi 0 0 35/512 pi 31/512 pi 0 0 361/8192 pi 657/16384 pi 0 0 2055/65536 pi 1909/65536 pi suggesting that I(N) will be non-zero if and only if N = 4k+3 and N = 4k+4, for k = 0, 1, 2.. RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Gerson W. Barbosa - 07-12-2018 08:10 PM (07-12-2018 10:32 AM)Pjwum Wrote:  With HP Prime we can go beyond 10 0 0 1/2 pi 1/4 pi 0 0 1/8 pi 7/64 pi 0 0 35/512 pi 31/512 pi 0 0 361/8192 pi 657/16384 pi 0 0 2055/65536 pi 1909/65536 pi Sure we can: %%HP: T(3)A(R)F(.); \<< DUPDUP 'X' 1 ROT OVER SWAP   FOR i OVER i ^ DUP INV + *   NEXT NIP EXPAND FXND DROP \->STR "*X^" ROT DUPDUP * + 2 / DUP 2 + \->STR "+" + UNROT \->STR + "+" + "X^" ROT + PICK3 SWAP POS PICK3 ROT POS 1 - SUB DUP SIZE 1 -   IF NOT   THEN DROP2 0   ELSE DUP SIZE OVER "+" POS 1 + SWAP SUB OBJ\-> 2 ROT 1 - ^ / \pi *   END \>> 'VASRC1' STO 40 %%HP: T(3)A(R)F(.); \<< { } 1 ROT   FOR i i VASRC1 +   NEXT \>> EVAL --> { 0 0 '1/2*π' '1/4*π' 0 0 '1/8*π' '7/64*π' 0 0 '35/512*π' '31/512*π' 0 0 '361/8192*π' '657/16384*π' 0 0 '2055/65536*π' '1909/65536*π' 0 0 '24955/1048576*π' '46923/2097152*π' 0 0 '316301/16777216*π' '299973/16777216*π' 0 0 '4136805/268435456*π' '15796439/1073741824*π' 0 0 '13853361/1073741824*π' '26585247/2147483648*π' 0 0 '756388295/68719476736*π' '182188585/17179869184*π' } Not the best method, I fear. Expand Product{ k=1..n, x^N + 1/x^N } and take the coefficient of the power of x corresponding to the Nth triangular number in the numerator (if there is no correspondence, then the result will be zero). That's your numerator. Your denominator is 2^(N - 1). Multiply the resulting fraction by $$\pi$$. The cases where the results are zero should be handled more cleverly, as you have suggested, but this is only a test. The RPL program might not be fast enough on the real HP 50g as N get larger. For N = 12, it takes 16.75 seconds; for N = 20 it takes 118.41 seconds. The evaluation of the integrals would take much, much longer, I guess. Gerson. RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Gerson W. Barbosa - 07-12-2018 08:29 PM (07-12-2018 06:10 AM)Massimo Gnerucci Wrote:   (07-12-2018 04:23 AM)Gerson W. Barbosa Wrote:  No googling, except for a OEIS sequence. I bet is one of these! I thought this one was not at OEIS yet, but it is: 2, 10, 12, 17, 18, 19, 200, 201, 202... BTW, at first I searched for 140, 248, but these didn't match anything in the table. 70, 124 was successful. Edited to fix a typo Gerson. RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Valentin Albillo - 07-12-2018 10:43 PM . Hi, all: Thanks for your interest in my SRC#001, some excellent contributions so far, much appreciated. Next Sunday night (GMT+1) I'll post my HP-41C and HP-71B solutions plus extras, but meanwhile I'll comment on some of your recent posts, read on: pier4r Wrote:Thanks for the post. What does SRC means in this case? Source problem? Nope, SRC = Semi-Regular Column. Gerson W. Barbosa Wrote:Here is my conjecture for the exact result when N = 39: 756388295 / 68719476736*Pi Fully correct. You might want to check the exact result for N=71, namely:       I(71) = 335205518724079925 / 73786976294838206464 * Pi which I got by actually computing the integral, then identifying the resulting constant, using dedicated programs I wrote myself (no OEIS involved). It's the hard way but hey, it's fun ! Pjwum Wrote:we can go beyond 10 [...] suggesting that I(N) will be non-zero if and only if N = 4k+3 and N = 4k+4, for k = 0, 1, 2.. Fully correct as well, we have a winner ! Well done, congratulations. 8-) Gerson (again) Wrote:Sure we can: [...] { 0 0 '1/2*π' '1/4*π' 0 0 '1/8*π' '7/64*π' 0 0 '35/512*π' '31/512*π' 0 0 '361/8192*π' '657/16384*π' 0 0 '2055/65536*π' '1909/65536*π' 0 0 '24955/1048576*π' '46923/2097152*π' 0 0 '316301/16777216*π' '299973/16777216*π' 0 0 '4136805/268435456*π' '15796439/1073741824*π' 0 0 '13853361/1073741824*π' '26585247/2147483648*π' 0 0 '756388295/68719476736*π' '182188585/17179869184*π' } Not the best method, I fear. [...] The evaluation of the integrals would take much, much longer, I guess. It would take much, much longer or not, depending on how you go about computing them. Your results are correct, congratulations, but without explaining why would you compute the numerators and denominators that way it all seems a "magic trick" unrelated to the problem at hand as the relation to the integral seems shrouded in mystery ... 8-D Regards. V. . RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Gerson W. Barbosa - 07-13-2018 03:54 AM (07-12-2018 10:43 PM)Valentin Albillo Wrote:  Pjwum Wrote:we can go beyond 10 [...] suggesting that I(N) will be non-zero if and only if N = 4k+3 and N = 4k+4, for k = 0, 1, 2.. Fully correct as well, we have a winner ! Well done, congratulations. 8-) Or, alternatively, if N(N + 1)/2 mod 2 = 0. RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - ijabbott - 07-13-2018 06:52 PM You don't really need to do any integration to solve this problem. You just need to use the trig identities to convert the product of cosines into a sum of cosines. When there is a non-zero constant term in the sum, the integral from $$0$$ to $$2\pi$$ will be non-zero. The integrals of all the $$\cos(kx)$$ terms from $$0$$ to $$2\pi$$ will be zero. The general form for converting the product of cosines to a sum of cosines is: $\cos(s)\cos(t) = \frac{1}{2}\cos(s-t) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(s+t)$ So: $\begin{eqnarray} \cos(1x) &=& \cos(1x) \end{eqnarray}$ $\begin{eqnarray} \cos(1x)\cos(2x) &=& \frac{1}{2}\cos(1x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(3x) \end{eqnarray}$ $\begin{eqnarray} \cos(1x)\cos(2x)\cos(3x) &=& \frac{1}{2}\cos(1x)\cos(3x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(3x)\cos(3x) \\ &=& \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(2x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(4x)\right) + \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(0x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(6x)\right) \\ &=& \frac{1}{4}\cos(2x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(4x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(0x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(6x) \\ &=& \frac{1}{4}\cos(0x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(2x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(4x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(6x) \end{eqnarray}$ $\begin{eqnarray} \cos(1x)\cos(2x)\cos(3x)\cos(4x) &=& \frac{1}{4}\cos(0x)\cos(4x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(2x)\cos(4x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(4x)\cos(4x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(6x)\cos(4x) \\ &=& \frac{1}{4}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(4x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(4x)\right) + \frac{1}{4}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(2x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(6x)\right) + \frac{1}{4}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(0x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(8x)\right) + \frac{1}{4}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(2x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(10x)\right) \\ &=& \frac{1}{8}\cos(4x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(4x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(2x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(6x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(0x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(8x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(2x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(10x) \\ &=& \frac{1}{8}\cos(0x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(2x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(4x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(6x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(8x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(10x) \end{eqnarray}$ $\begin{eqnarray} \cos(1x)\cos(2x)\cos(3x)\cos(4x)\cos(5x) &=& \frac{1}{8}\cos(0x)\cos(5x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(2x)\cos(5x) + \frac{1}{4}\cos(4x)\cos(5x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(6x)\cos(5x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(8x)\cos(5x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(10x)\cos(5x) \\ &=& \frac{1}{8}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(5x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(5x)\right) + \frac{1}{4}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(3x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(7x)\right) + \frac{1}{4}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(1x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(9x)\right) + \frac{1}{8}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(1x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(11x)\right) + \frac{1}{8}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(3x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(13x)\right) + \frac{1}{8}\left(\frac{1}{2}\cos(5x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(15x)\right) \\ &=& \frac{1}{16}\cos(5x) + \frac{1}{16}\cos(5x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(3x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(7x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(1x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(9x) + \frac{1}{16}\cos(1x) + \frac{1}{16}\cos(11x) + \frac{1}{16}\cos(3x) + \frac{1}{16}\cos(13x) + \frac{1}{16}\cos(5x) + \frac{1}{16}\cos(15x) \\ &=& \frac{3}{16}\cos(1x) + \frac{3}{16}\cos(3x) + \frac{3}{16}\cos(5x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(7x) + \frac{1}{8}\cos(9x) + \frac{1}{16}\cos(11x) + \frac{1}{16}\cos(13x) + \frac{1}{16}\cos(15x) \end{eqnarray}$ It's a bit tedious to continue, but you can see a constant term $$\frac{1}{4}\cos(0x) = \frac{1}{4}$$ in the expansion of $$\prod_{i=1}^{3} \cos(ix)$$, a constant term of $$\frac{1}{8}\cos(0x) = \frac{1}{8}$$ in the expansion of $$\prod_{i=1}^{4} \cos(ix)$$, and the constant term goes away in the expansion of $$\prod_{i=1}^{5} \cos(ix)$$. The constant terms are the coefficients of $$\cos(0x)$$ in those expansions whose terms consist of cosines of even multiples of $$x$$. Your challenge, should you choose to accept it, is to come up with a general formula for each term (or a summation formula for all the terms). Of course, once you've found the coefficient for the constant $$\cos(0x)$$ term, calculating the integral from $$0$$ to $$2\pi$$ is a piece of cake! (Just multiply the coefficient by $$2\pi$$.) RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - rprosperi - 07-14-2018 01:30 AM I'm truly impressed at your diligence writing all those equations before essentially saying "... and so on". I'd probably be at least as impressed at the math, if I followed it, but I just wanted to give you kudos for all the work to explain your analysis. RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - ijabbott - 07-14-2018 01:39 AM (07-14-2018 01:30 AM)rprosperi Wrote:  I'm truly impressed at your diligence writing all those equations before essentially saying "... and so on". I'd probably be at least as impressed at the math, if I followed it, but I just wanted to give you kudos for all the work to explain your analysis. Thanks! I'm slowly getting the hang of this MathJax lark! RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - ijabbott - 07-14-2018 02:08 PM Converting the product of cosines $$\prod_{i=1}^{n}\cos(ix)$$ into a sum of cosines results in the angle multipliers being in the sum of cosines being all odd (when $$(n \bmod 4) \in \{1,2\}$$) or all even (when $$(n \bmod 4) \in \{0,3\}$$). Identity: $\cos(s)\cos(t) = \frac{1}{2}\cos(s-t) + \frac{1}{2}\cos(s+t)$ Let $$s = \textrm{a}x, t = \textrm{b}x$$. Then: $\cos(\textrm{a}x)\cos(\textrm{b}x) = \frac{1}{2}\cos((\textrm{a}-\textrm{b})x) + \frac{1}{2}\cos((\textrm{a}+\textrm{b})x)$ When $$\textrm{a}$$ and $$\textrm{b}$$ are both odd or both even, then $$(\textrm{a}-\textrm{b})$$ and $$(\textrm{a}+\textrm{b})$$ are both even, otherwise $$(\textrm{a}-\textrm{b})$$ and $$(\textrm{a}+\textrm{b})$$ are both odd. This results in the factors $$\textrm{k}$$ of $$x$$ in the $$\cos(\textrm{k}x)$$ terms of the summation switching between all odd and all even after every two $$\cos(ix)$$ factors are appended to the product of cosines. As discussed in my earlier post, the summations with all odd $$\textrm{k}$$, $$\cos(\textrm{k}x)$$ terms all integrate to 0 over the interval $$[0,2\pi]$$, but the summations with all even $$\textrm{k}$$, $$\cos(\textrm{k}x)$$ terms all include a constant term $$\textrm{q}\cos(0x)$$ for some positive rational factor $$\textrm{q}$$ which integrates to $$2\textrm{q}\pi$$ over the interval $$[0,2\pi]$$. RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Thomas Klemm - 07-14-2018 08:38 PM (07-13-2018 06:52 PM)ijabbott Wrote:  It's a bit tedious to continue We can use: $cos(nx)=\frac{e^{inx}+e^{-inx}}{2}$ Thus: $\begin{eqnarray} cos(mx)cos(nx) &=&(\frac{e^{imx}+e^{-imx}}{2})(\frac{e^{inx}+e^{-inx}}{2}) \\ &=& \frac{e^{i(m+n)x}+e^{-i(m+n)x}}{4}+\frac{e^{i(m-n)x}+e^{-i(m-n)x}}{4} \\ &=&\frac{cos(m+n)}{2}+\frac{cos(m-n)}{2} \end{eqnarray}$ Let's forget the factor $$\frac{1}{2}$$ for a moment and define: $a_{k}=a^{k}+a^{-k}$ For the same reason as above we have: $\begin{eqnarray} a_{m}a_{n}&=&(a^{m}+a^{-m})(a^{n}+a^{-n}) \\ &=&a^{m+n}+a^{-(m+n)}+a^{m-n}+a^{-(m-n)} \\ &=&a_{m+n}+a_{m-n} \end{eqnarray}$ But of course $$a_{k}=a_{-k}$$. This allows us to rewrite it as: $a_{m}a_{n}=a_{m+n}+a_{|m-n|}$ We want to calculate the product: $p_N=\Pi_{k=1}^{N}a_{k}$ Let's assume we already have $$p_{N-1}$$ represented as a sum of $$a_k$$ with coefficients $$b_k$$: $p_{N-1}=\Sigma_{k=1}^{M}b_{k}a_{k}$ Then $$p_{N}=a_{N}p_{N-1}$$ and thus: $\begin{eqnarray} p_{N} &=& a_{N}\Sigma_{k=1}^{M}b_{k}a_{k} \\ &=& \Sigma_{k=1}^{M}b_{k}a_{N}a_{k} \\ &=& \Sigma_{k=1}^{M}b_{k}(a_{N+k}+a_{N-k}) \end{eqnarray}$ This Python program allows us to calculate the coefficients $$b_k$$: Code: def spiky(N):     b = [0] * N     b[0] = [0]     b[1] = [0, 1]     for k in range(2, N):         M = len(b[k-1])         b[k] = [0] * (M + k)         for i in range(M):             b[k][k + i] += b[k - 1][i]             b[k][abs(k - i)] += b[k - 1][i]     return b Here's the result for the first couple of values: Code: >>> for b in spiky(11): ...   print b ... [0] [0, 1] [0, 1, 0, 1] [1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1] [1, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1] [0, 3, 0, 3, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1] [0, 5, 0, 5, 0, 4, 0, 4, 0, 4, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1] [4, 0, 8, 0, 8, 0, 7, 0, 7, 0, 6, 0, 5, 0, 5, 0, 4, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1] [7, 0, 13, 0, 13, 0, 13, 0, 12, 0, 11, 0, 10, 0, 9, 0, 8, 0, 7, 0, 6, 0, 5, 0, 4, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1] [0, 23, 0, 23, 0, 22, 0, 21, 0, 21, 0, 19, 0, 18, 0, 17, 0, 15, 0, 13, 0, 12, 0, 10, 0, 9, 0, 8, 0, 6, 0, 5, 0, 4, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1] [0, 40, 0, 39, 0, 39, 0, 38, 0, 36, 0, 35, 0, 33, 0, 31, 0, 29, 0, 27, 0, 24, 0, 22, 0, 20, 0, 17, 0, 15, 0, 13, 0, 11, 0, 10, 0, 8, 0, 6, 0, 5, 0, 4, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1] But we're only interested in the coefficient with the index 0: Code: >>> for b in spiky(40): ...   print b[0] ... 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 4 7 0 0 35 62 0 0 361 657 0 0 4110 7636 0 0 49910 93846 0 0 632602 1199892 0 0 8273610 15796439 0 0 110826888 212681976 0 0 1512776590 Now it's time to deal with the factor $$\frac{1}{2}$$ that we neglected. But that's trivial. We just have to add it to each factor $$a_{k}$$. This leads to: $$\frac{1}{2^{N-1}}$$ And since we integrate the constant over $$2\pi$$ we loose another 2. These are the examples for $$N=39$$ and $$N=71$$: Code: >>> b = spiky(100) >>> print b[39][0], '/', 2**37 1512776590 / 137438953472 >>> print b[71][0], '/', 2**69 2681644149792639400 / 590295810358705651712 However the ratios haven't been reduced. (07-12-2018 08:10 PM)Gerson W. Barbosa Wrote:  Expand Product{ k=1..n, x^N + 1/x^N } and take the coefficient of the power of x corresponding to the Nth triangular number in the numerator (if there is no correspondence, then the result will be zero). That's your numerator. Your denominator is 2^(N - 1). Multiply the resulting fraction by $$\pi$$. Not sure if I understood that correctly but it might explain the expression: $x^N+\frac{1}{x^N}$ Thanks both for the challenge and the contributions. Cheers Thomas RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Valentin Albillo - 07-14-2018 10:54 PM . Hi all, First of all, thanks for your interest and outstanding contributions, I've really enjoyed them all, much appreciated. As promised, these are my versions for other HP models (HP-71B and HP-41C) plus relevant comments: As already mentioned, an educated conjecture might be that I(N) is non-zero if the reminder of dividing N by 4 (that is, N mod 4) is either 0 or 3 (i.e.: N=3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15, 16,...) which actually is the correct answer. 1) My version for the HP-71B is the following 220-byte 6-liner:       1  DESTROY ALL @ DIM S$[200] @ T=1/10^8 @ S$="COS(IVAR)" @ FOR N=1 TO 16       2  IF N>1 THEN S$=S$&"*COS("&STR$(N)&"*IVAR)" 3 S=VAL("INTEGRAL(0,2*PI,"&STR$(T)&","&S\$&")") @ IF ABS(S)RUN         3: 1.5707963268 = 1/2*Pi         4: 0.7853981634 = 1/4*Pi         7: 0.3926990817 = 1/8*Pi         8: 0.3436116965 = 7/64*Pi        11: 0.2147573103 = 35/512*Pi        12: 0.1902136177 = 31/512*Pi        15: 0.1384417661 = 361/8192*Pi        16: 0.1259781722 = 657/16384*Pi Without the identification calls this runs in 19 sec. in my POPS system. 2) My version for the HP-41C/Advantage ROM is a verbatim port of the one I gave for the HP-15C, namely:       01   LBL "FX"   01   LBL "CINT"       02   STO 01     02   1.01       03   RCL 00     03   STO 00       04   INT        04   "FX"       05   STO 02     05   LBL 00       06    1         06    0       07   LBL 01     07   PI       08   RCL 02     08   ST+ X       09   RCL 01     09   INTEG       10    x         10   RCL 00       11   COS        11   STOP       12    x         12   X<>Y       13   DSE 02     13   STOP       14   GTO 01     14   ISG 00       15   END        15   GTO 00                       16   END To run it (the results are exactly the same as the HP-15C's but obtained much faster): RAD, FIX 3 XEQ "CINT"  -> 1.010        [R/S] -> -1.083 -04             [R/S] ->  2.010       [R/S] -> -5.974 -05             [R/S] ->  3.010       [R/S] -> 1.571             [R/S] ->  4.010       [R/S] -> 0.785             [R/S] ->  5.010       [R/S] -> 3.778 -08             [R/S] ->  6.010       [R/S] -> 2.733 -09             [R/S] ->  7.010       [R/S] -> 0.393             [R/S] ->  8.010       [R/S] -> 0.344             [R/S] ->  9.010       [R/S] -> -3.600 -04             [R/S] -> 10.010      [R/S] -> 1.664 -09 With FIX 2, for N=4 we'd get I(4) = 0.86 +- 0.03, which is 10% wrong. Details:       N=4, f(x) = cos(x)*cos(2*x)*cos(3*x)*cos(4*x)             FIX 3: 0.7853981871 +- 0.003141592705, correct             FIX 2: 0.8645215735 +- 0.03141592659 , 10% wrong             SCI 2: 0.7853981871 +- 0.001484303379 . correct The exact value is Pi/4 = 0.785398163397 so we get almost 8 correct digits with FIX 3 or SCI 2 but hardly one with FIX 2. 3) Extra comments: A little theory now. After some algebraic massaging, any product of cosines of real arguments can be converted into a sum of exponentials of complex arguments using the following identity:       Cos(x) = (e^(i*x) + e^(-i*x))/2 This can be checked with this little HP-71B routine:       10 DESTROY ALL @ COMPLEX A,B @ INPUT X       15 !       20 DEF FNC1(X)=COS(X)       25 DEF FNC2(X)=COS(X)*COS(2*X)       30 DEF FNC3(X)=COS(X)*COS(2*X)*COS(3*X)       35 DEF FNC4(X)=COS(X)*COS(2*X)*COS(3*X)*COS(4*X)       40 !       45 DEF FNE(X)=REPT(EXP((0,X))+EXP((0,-X)))       50 !       55 DEF FNE1(X)=1/2*FNE(X)       60 DEF FNE2(X)=1/4*(FNE(X)+FNE(3*X))       65 DEF FNE3(X)=1/8*(FNE(0)+FNE(2*X)+FNE(4*X)+FNE(6*X))       70 DEF FNE4(X)=1/16*(FNE(0)+2*FNE(2*X)+2*FNE(4*X)+FNE(6*X)+FNE(8*X)+FNE(10*X))       75 !       80 DISP 1;FNC1(X),FNE1(X) @ DISP 2;FNC2(X),FNE2(X) @ DISP 3;FNC3(X),FNE3(X) @ DISP 4;FNC4(X),FNE4(X) where the FNC1, FNC2, FNC3, FNC4 are user-defined functions (UDFs) implementing the products of 1, 2, 3 and 4 cosines, while the FNE1, FNE2, FNE3, FNE4 are the equivalent sums of 1, 2, 4 and 8 complex exponentials (not all necessarily distinct). Let's run it: >RUN ? .2018       1 .979707385531 .97970738553       2 .900990956269 .90099095627       3 .740861912405 .740861912405       4 .512323594236 .512323594236 As you may see, every FNE1..4 gives the same result as the corresponding FNC1..4 for an arbitrary argument (.2018). What is to be gained by converting a product of cosines into a sum of exponentials ? Two main things: the integral of a sum of functions is the sum of the integrals of each function separately the integral of a simple exponential function is another simple exponential function so no need for numerical integration In this way, the integral of the product of cosines becomes a sum of exponential functions and no numerical approximations are required. There's of course the drudgery of determining the components of the sum but that's another story ! XD Again, thanks for your interest and regards. V. . RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Gerson W. Barbosa - 07-15-2018 02:53 PM (07-14-2018 08:38 PM)Thomas Klemm Wrote:  These are the examples for $$N=39$$ and $$N=71$$: Code: >>> b = spiky(100) >>> print b[39][0], '/', 2**37 1512776590 / 137438953472 >>> print b[71][0], '/', 2**69 2681644149792639400 / 590295810358705651712 However the ratios haven't been reduced. In exact mode, the HP 50g does it automatically. (07-14-2018 08:38 PM)Thomas Klemm Wrote:   (07-12-2018 08:10 PM)Gerson W. Barbosa Wrote:  Expand Product{ k=1..n, x^N + 1/x^N } and take the coefficient of the power of x corresponding to the Nth triangular number in the numerator (if there is no correspondence, then the result will be zero). That's your numerator. Your denominator is 2^(N - 1). Multiply the resulting fraction by $$\pi$$. Not sure if I understood that correctly but it might explain the expression: $x^N+\frac{1}{x^N}$ I haven't trodden any of the hard (and beautiful) paths you all have done. Instead, I took an unallowed (according to Valentin's rules) and dull shortcut. It was not difficult to recognize pi/2 and pi/4 in his his three-digit results for n = 3 and n = 4. Then I evaluated the integrals for n up to 12 on my CASIO fx-991 LA X, which doesn't take too long to return exact results in terms of pi for small values of n (1/8*pi after 3m 30s, for n = 7; 0.3436116965 after 4m 31s, for n = 8). The pattern soon became apparent: a fraction of pi, the denominator being a power of 2. For denominators = 2^(n - 1), the first numerators, starting with n = 1, are 0, 0, 2, 2, 0, 0, 8, 14, 0, 0, 70, 124, 0..., that is, OEIS sequence A063865. Quoting from the formula section: "a(n) = constant term in expansion of Product_{ k = 1..n } (x^k + 1/x^k). - N. J. A. Sloane, Jul 07 2008" Thus, since (X + 1/X)(X^2 + 1/X^2)(X^3 + 1/X^3)(X^4 + 1/X^4)(X^5 + 1/X^5)(X^6 + 1/X^6)(X^7 + 1/X^7)(X^8 + 1/X^8) = X^36 + 1/X^36 + X^34 + 1/X^34 + X^32 + 1/X^32 + 2 X^30 + 2/X^30 + 2 X^28 + 2/X^28 + 3 X^26 + 3/X^26 + 4 X^24 + 4/X^24 + 5 X^22 + 5/X^22 + 6 X^20 + 6/X^20 + 7 X^18 + 7/X^18 + 8 X^16 + 8/X^16 + 9 X^14 + 9/X^14 + 10 X^12 + 10/X^12 + 11 X^10 + 11/X^10 + 12 X^8 + 12/X^8 + 13 X^6 + 13/X^6 + 13 X^4 + 13/X^4 + 13 X^2 + 13/X^2 + 14 a(8) = 14 So, the numerator can be found by means of a polynomial expansion. However, when expanding this polynomial on the HP 50g, using the EXPAND command, I got '(X^72+X^70+X^68+2*X^66+2*X^64+3*X^62+4*X^60+5*X^58+6*X^56+7*X^54+8*X^52+9*X^50+​10*X^48+11*X^46+12*X^44+13*X^42+13*X^40+13*X^38+14*X^36+13*X^34+13*X^32+13*X^30+12*X^28+11*X^26+10*X^24+9*X^22+8*X^20+7*X^18+6*X^1​6+5*X^14+4*X^12+3*X^10+2*X^8+2*X^6+X^4+X^2+1)/X^36', which is equivalent to the previous polynomial, except that the constant term in the numerator is 1. But notice 14 is the coefficient in the numerator that corresponds to the power of the denominator (...+14*X^36+.../X^36). Also, 36 = 8*(8 + 1)/2, that is, the 8th triangular number. This has worked for some othe values of n I tried, so I assumed it is a valid property. The degree of the numerator polynomial is n*(n + 1), which means its size grows quadratically as n increases, which is both memory and time-consuming. Hopefully your method of generating the coefficients is faster (since I don't know python, I can't properly decode your algorithm). I am disappointed there isn't a formula to directly compute the terms of the sequence. There is an asymptotic formula at OEIS, but it is not good enough for practical purposes. So I made some adjustments, which are by no means exact, but might give 5 or 6 correct significant digits for relatively low n, when computing the integral: a(n) ~ sqrt(6/pi)*2^n*(1-6/(5*n)+21/(20*n^2)-1/(8*n^3)+3/n^4)/(n*sqrt(n)) or a(n) ~ (sqrt(3/p) 2^(n - 5/2) (n (2 n (4 n (5 n - 6) + 21) - 5) + 120))/(5 n^(11/2)) The following HP-42S program computes the integral for n >= 1 and n up to about 20000 (on Free42) and returns exact results for n < 15. Code:  00 { 90-Byte Prgm } 01▸LBL "INCS" 02 ENTER 03 ENTER 04 ENTER 05 5 06 × 07 6 08 - 09 × 10 4 11 × 12 21 13 + 14 × 15 2 16 × 17 5 18 - 19 3 20 PI 21 ÷ 22 SQRT 23 × 24 X<>Y 25 4.5 26 Y↑X 27 5 28 × 29 ÷ 30 X<>Y 31 X↑2 32 RCL+ ST L 33 2 34 ÷ 35 1 36 - 37 2 38 MOD 39 × 40 X<>Y 41 2.5 42 - 43 2 44 X<>Y 45 Y↑X 46 × 47 0.5 48 + 49 IP 50 2 51 R↑ 52 1 53 - 54 Y↑X 55 ÷ 56 PI 57 × 58 END Gerson. RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Thomas Klemm - 07-15-2018 06:26 PM This RPL program calculates the coefficients: Code: «   « → m     « { 1 m } 0 CON OBJ→ DROP m →LIST     »   » → n ZEROS   « { 0 1 } 2 n     FOR k DUP SIZE → a s       « k ZEROS EVAL a +         a 1 k SUB 0 + REVLIST s 1 - ZEROS EVAL +         ADD         a k 1 + s SUB k 2 * ZEROS EVAL +         ADD       »     NEXT   » » Example: The value for 4 is: { 1 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 } To get the value for 5 we create the following lists: { 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 } { 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 } { 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 } And then we just ADD them up: { 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 } The 2nd and the 3rd list is just the 1st list reversed and then again mirrored at the left border. That's a consequence of $$a_k=a^k+a^{-k}$$ being symmetric, that is $$a_k=a_{-k}$$. We don't want negative indices. Cheers Thomas PS: Is there a better way to create a list of m zeros? RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Gerson W. Barbosa - 07-15-2018 07:10 PM   The RPL program has been rewritten so as not to needlessly waste time expanding a polynomial when results are supposed to be zero. %%HP: T(3)A(R)F(.); \<< DUPDUP DUPDUP * + 2 / 2 MOD   IF NOT   THEN DUP 'X' 1 ROT OVER SWAP     FOR i OVER i ^ DUP INV + *     NEXT NIP EXPAND FXND DROP \->STR "*X^" ROT DUPDUP * + 2 / DUP 2 + \->STR "+" + UNROT \->STR + "+" + "X^" ROT + PICK3 SWAP POS PICK3 ROT POS 1 - SUB DUP SIZE OVER "+" POS 1 + SWAP SUB OBJ\-> 2 ROT 1 - ^ / \pi *   ELSE DROP2 0   END \>> 71 -> '335205518724079925/73786976294838206464*π' -> NUM -> 1.42718843886E-2 267.5 bytes, but it takes too long for this example (28m 34s... on the emulator!) As a comparison, the RPN program on Free42 returns 1.4271(9054304)E-2 instantly (maybe a couple of seconds on a real 42S). RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - Gerson W. Barbosa - 07-15-2018 07:35 PM (07-15-2018 06:26 PM)Thomas Klemm Wrote:  PS: Is there a better way to create a list of m zeros? Better, but probably not the best way, at least on the 49/50g: « { m } 0 CON AXL » RE: [VA] SRC#001 - Spiky Integral - DavidM - 07-15-2018 07:53 PM (07-15-2018 07:35 PM)Gerson W. Barbosa Wrote:   (07-15-2018 06:26 PM)Thomas Klemm Wrote:  PS: Is there a better way to create a list of m zeros? Better, but probably not the best way, at least on the 49/50g: « { m } 0 CON AXL » Gerson's method above is also how I would do it if the ListExt library isn't available. Using the ListExt library: « 0 m LMRPT » Creating a list of 1000 0s with the CON method: 0.77s Creating the same list with the ListExt command: 0.07s Either should give reasonable performance in this scenario.